The Future Prospects Of Norway - 1128 Words

In order to discuss the future prospects of Norway for the coming years, it is interesting and useful to review the performance of the country in the past to identify possible trends. At the end of 2013, Norway was calculated as having the second highest GDP in the world (only under Luxembourg), as it was 65,515 US dollars per capita. The following graph (Chart 1 - see appendix) shows the growth in Norway’s GDP from 1970. Here, we can see the effect of the recession in 2008, and how it reflected on the downfall of the GDP’s value. Only until 2010 is where we see the value become even with the pre-crisis number. Yet, according to Figure 1 (below), the index shows that it has not yet reached the value that it would have, following the trend prior to 2008. Figure 1. Norway’s Gross Domestic Product. The graphic shows the growth of GDP for Norway in red, Luxemburg in black and the rest of the OECD countries in grey. Source: OECD, 2014 Apart from GDP, there are also other indicators that can give us an impression of the economic performance of Norway in the past years. For instance, in 2013 the long-term unemployment rate was 9.3% and the overall trend suggests it may continue to go down (Appendix 1, Chart 1). This refers to those in unemployment that are aged 15 and over, were without work during the reference week, yet were available for and actively seeking for work during the previous four weeks. Moreover, the inflation and long-term interest ratesShow MoreRelatedIndigenous Peoples, Ethnic Minority And Multi Cultural Society1626 Words   |  7 Pagesmulti-cultural society: What role in a changing world The Sami people are indigenous people in Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Russia in the Kola peninsula. 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The autobiographical narrative, A Child Called It by Dave...

The autobiographical narrative, A Child Called It by Dave Pelzer recounts the harrowing abuse he endured at the hands of a figure that should represent security and comfort-his mother. Between the ages of 4-12 Pelzer suffered mental, physical and emotional torment from his alcoholic mother, ostracizing him from his family. A dwelling that should symbolize a sanctuary for an innocent child instead became an abusive containment facility. In documenting the raw images of his scarred past, Pelzer was able to fabricate a face to an otherwise silent evil. He also represented those who experienced similar situations of anguish and despair. His ordeal embodied the ability of the human spirit to endure to its breaking point, but still†¦show more content†¦This is the foundation for his argument and the pivotal component in establishing his credibility. In his early years of captivity, Pelzer had the imagination, dreams, and hopes of an innocent child. This paved the way for his eve ntual release and future success’s he was able to accomplish. Throughout the narrative, food was represented as a metaphor for power. The internal and external conflict surrounding Pelzer and his mother was primarily around food and Pelzer’s ability to acquire some or not. In chapter 4, â€Å"The Fight for Food†, Pelzer describes his struggle to obtain and retain food. Mother established her sense of daunting authority and supremacy by controlling every morsel of food Pelzer had, many times refusing to feed him in order to justify the cruelty she condoned upon him. â€Å"On weekends, to punish me for my thefts, Mother refused to feed me† (p.49). Ironically Pelzer was able to weaken Mother’s seemingly stable sense of command through the same outlet. Whenever he was able to outsmart mother, Pelzer implied that he felt a sense of clout and control over his situation. â€Å"As I held a piece of frozen pumpkin pie crust or a bit of a taco shell, I w as the king, and like a king on his throne, I gazed down on my food and smiled† (p. 79). Pelzer’s few victories in â€Å"The Fight for Food† foreshadowed his eventual escape from the tightening grasp of his mother, lending credence to his argument of hope during times of

Discuss Pinters dramatic presentation of Ruth in The Homecoming Free Essays

Surrealistically representing the pugilistic life of a pack of ‘Hackney predators’, Pinter portrays the mounting conflict within the tribe as each male fights for the Alfa position, with the reward of the lone female, Ruth. Embroidered with elaborately hidden meanings, pregnant pauses and ellipses, this play strips the characters of the outside shell of etiquette and politesse associated with society and left with only language as an attempt to cover the nakedness of their animalistic cores. These characteristics are recognized through the ‘Pinteresque’ themes of nameless menace, erotic fantasy, obsession and jealousy, family hatred, and mental disturbance. We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss Pinters dramatic presentation of Ruth in The Homecoming or any similar topic only for you Order Now The plot follows the course of Teddy returning home with his wife, Ruth, and her journey in to ‘take on’ the pack and eventually take over the role of Queen Bee. During the course of the drama, she exacts her revenge on Teddy in leaving him for his family of sexually screwed up ‘butchers’. Teddy and Ruth’s arrival from America is symbolically representative of Teddy’s homecoming after nine years away. He returns married with a ‘Doctorship of Philosophy’ and supposedly father of three sons, although later questioned by Max, ‘all yours, Ted?’, suggesting Ruth is, as ever, unfaithful and a prostitute. ‘Are you tired?’ this passage opens with the estranged couple struggling to find coherence with the blatant discord, ‘No’. Ruth’s replies are cold, quasi-monosyllabic and detached, perhaps in an attempt to undermine Teddy’s ascension to authority as he blatantly refuses to listen and orders her around: ‘Go to bed. I’ll show you the room’ shows the reader that ultimately, Ruth’s opinions are irrelevant as the subordinate member in a marriage. Like Joey is to Lenny, Teddy sees Ruth as merely an appendage, thus his patronizing condescendence, ‘You can help me with my lectures when we get back’. Teddy’s long speeches reveal him as nervous despite his seeming attempts to reassure Ruth : ‘You’ll be perfectly all right up there without me.’ He uses excessive language to cover his vulnerability in face of the confident and controlling Ruth, whose short, sharp syntax displays her self-assured disposition. Similarly, Max and Lenny, who appear to feel her authority also go off into long, pre-rehearsed monologues, for example Lenny’s encounter with ‘a certain lady’ ‘with a certain proposal’ ‘one night, not too long ago’. Ruth’s presence evokes ambiguous emotions within Teddy’s family: alternately revered and rebuked, she is perceived as both the absent mother-figure (Jessie) : ‘make the beds’, ‘do the cooking’, ‘scrub the place out a bit’, ‘keep everyone company’, and as a sexual object ‘in a dress in pale corded blue silk, heavily encrusted in pearls’ and ‘pantaloons in lilac flowered taffeta’. Significantly mentioning the structure of the house, Pinter reminds the reader and the audience of the boneless, spineless family, now that Jessie, ‘the backbone’ has died. Teddy, who wants to ‘stay up for a bit’ and ‘walk about’, provokes sub-textual connotations of the returning male reassuming his dominance as eldest son and marking his territory. However, giving Ruth the house key, having his cigar go out and going to bed prior to Ruth culminates into his eventual emasculation and loss of power among his brothers. Subtextually, Teddy’s ‘You†¦need some rest, you know’ is ambivalent in expressing Ruth’s mental instability, or that Teddy is sending her away for doing something he doesn’t approve of. The audience might relate this with ‘she’s a very popular woman, she’s got lots of friends’, once again suggests Ruth’s involvement with prostitution as a ‘photographic model for the body’. Stifled in her relationship with a British academic, Ruth’s, ‘I think I’ll have a breath of air’ and ‘just a stroll’ suggests she’s out and about and ‘on the Game’ even before Max and Lenny agree to sponsor her. Quintessentially, Ruth’s confrontation with Lenny opens her ascension to power. If language is an attempt to cover nakedness, Ruth’s short, direct syntax show her to be in a position of power over Lenny. Not dissimilar to courting males in the animal kingdom trying to hide their vulnerabilities from the females with bright colours or confrontational battles, Max and Lenny use long and decorously embroidered renditions of what have happened previously to appear intelligent and dominating. And yet, Lenny still seeks his absent mother, ‘Do you mind if I hold your hand?’. Psychoanalytically, Pinter portrays the mental decay of his characters as Lenny oscillates between the maternal craving and desire to punish women with ‘a belt in the nose and a couple of turns of the boot.’ He expresses his assumed dominance in stating ‘I decided she was’, referring to the irrelevance of whether or not the prostitute was diseased, but rather that his word_as a pimp and ‘escort’_is law. Even so, Ruth overrides his authority, threatening, ‘if you take the glass, I’ll take you’. Proposals such as ‘sit on my lap’ and ‘lie on the floor’ have significantly provocative innuendoes, versus the maternal figure naming Lenny, ‘Leonard’. Pinter’s intricate depiction of Ruth is her reminiscent, contemplative nature. She cunningly employs frequent ellipses ‘†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ as a time of careful planning to put the angle of vision on her in a positive light. ‘I†¦move my leg’, ‘I wear†¦underwear†¦which moves with me†¦it†¦captures your attention’. Employing this teasing, provocative language register, Ruth enacts a wordy striptease, seducing the men around her and putting herself in the spotlight. She describes America as ‘all rock. And sand’, portentous of the ‘arid scimitar’ in To the Lighthouse, while the ‘insects’ metaphorically refers to her popularity amongst her ‘friends’. ‘once or twice †¦ cold buffet’ insinuates Ruth is a high-class prostitute. Contrastingly with Max’s diction, Ruth’s language register is not full of expletives but rather strategically thought out. She applies legal diction to decide the conditions of her contract with Teddy’s family: ‘All aspects of the agreement and conditions of employment would have to be clarified to our mutual satisfaction before we finalized to contract’, showing she is able to take care of herself as an individual and will not let the ‘butchers’ exploit her. This independence helps her stand out even more prominently than Teddy in all his aloofness, as she rises to position of Queen and orders Lenny , ‘I’d like something to eat’, ‘I’d like a drink’. In noting how Lenny does not reject the subordinate role to Ruth, the reader might suspect he enjoys being told what to do by a woman and thus deduce that Pinter’s own fantasies play a significant part in the play. He models Ruth on his wife, Vivien, embodying her as both saint and sinner, contrasting maternal and temptress. Biblically, Ruth, symbolic of ‘pity’ but also a Moabite widow who left her own people to live with her mother-in-law Naomi. All assets of femininity are sewn into one character, exposing her to the male’s sex drive and simultaneous desire for a mother presence. Ultimately, Pinter’s presentation of Ruth significantly exposes her as the model female, simultaneously dominate and subordinate, maternal and temptress. Through his pack of Hackney predators, he depicts her as a tool for sexual enjoyment but the eventual Queen Bee with Joey ‘kneeling at her chair’ in the final, still-life portrait. How to cite Discuss Pinters dramatic presentation of Ruth in The Homecoming, Papers

Printed Circuit Board free essay sample

PCBs/Overview – Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) †¢ Introduction †¢ Conductors. Supply Planes. Dielectric. †¢ Vias †¢ PCB Manufacturing Process †¢ Electronic Assembly Manufacturing Process 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 263 PCBs/Overview – For electronic assemblies PCBs are substrates providing mechanical support as well as electrical interconnect – PCB: Rigid or flexible substrate with single or multiple layers of conductors separated by insulating layers Note: PCBs are sometimes also referred to as PWBs (Printed Wiring Boards) 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 264 PCBs/General PCB Origin: United States – Therefore: Non-SI units (oz, mil, in) have been universally adopted for specifying PCBs: †¢ Board dimensions in inches (1in = 25. 4mm) †¢ Dielectric thicknesses and conductor widths/spacing in mil (1mil = 0. 001in = 25. 4 µm) †¢ Conductor (commonly copper) thicknesses in ounces (oz) The weight of conductor metal in a square foot of mat erial. Typical copper thicknesses are: 0. 5oz (17. 5 µm), 1oz (35 µm), 2oz (70 µm), 3oz (105 µm)  µ  µ  µ  µ 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 265 PCBs/General – PCB General Dimensional Specifications: †¢ Finished thicknesses – Standard: 31mil, 39mil and 62mil (0. 8mm, 1. 0mm and 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Printed Circuit Board or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page mm) – Non-standard:  » Readily available for high-volume orders  » Board thicknesses: 10mil-125mil (many PCB manufacturers stop at 20mil depending on plating finish) †¢ Maximum dimensions typically 16in x 20in †¢ Irregular shapes/slots etc readily available (routing) 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 266 Prepreg Core PCBs/Stackup Shown: Cross-section of a typical 8layer PCB Stackup Prepreg Core Prepreg Core – Typical PCB Stackup: Prepreg †¢ Alternating layers of core and prepreg †¢ Core: Thin piece of dielectric with copper foil bonded to both sides. Core dielectric is cured fiberglass-epoxy resin †¢ Prepreg: Uncured fiberglass-epoxy resin. Prepreg will cure (i. e. harden) when heated and pressed †¢ Outermost layers are prepreg with copper foil bonded to the outside (surface foils) †¢ To avoid crosstalk: Wires on adjacent signal layers are routed mostly orthogonally †¢ Stackup is symmetric about the center of the board in the vertical axis to avoid mechanical stress in the board under thermal cycling 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 267 PCBs/Conductors – Conductor: †¢ Material: Typically Cu †¢ Number of layers: – Single or multilayer (up to 20 layers, and more) – Dedicated supply layers (also called â€Å"ground layers†, â€Å"ground planes†) – Most popular: 4-8 signal layers plus 4-8 ground layers Material dimensions: – Thicknesses: 0. 5oz-3oz typically. 0. 5oz/1oz standard for inner layers. – Trend: towards 0. 25oz (particularly for laminated IC packages) – Width and spacing: ? 5mil 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 268 Prepreg Core PCBs/Stackup Shown: Cross-section of a typical 8layer PCB Stackup Prepreg Core Prepreg Core Prepreg – Power Planes: †¢ Power planes are typically built on thinnest core available from a fabrication vendor to maximize the capacitance between the planes †¢ Power planes often use thicker copper layers than signal layers to reduce resistance Why power planes? †¢ Provide stable reference voltages for signals †¢ Distribute power to all devices †¢ Control cross-talk between signals 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 269 PCBs/Conductors – PCB sheet resistances †¢ Cu resistivity ? =1. 7*10-8? m †¢ Remember: Sheet resistance†¦ PCB Sheet Resistances at T=300K (TC Copper: +3930ppm) Conductor PCB Copper Track (0. 5oz Cu) PCB Copper Track (1oz Cu) PCB Copper Track (2oz Cu) PCB Copper Track (3oz Cu) Rs in  µ? 971 486 h W L L = R= = Rs h ? W W A Compare to Semiconductor Rs figures: Sheet Resistances Material Metal (Aluminium) (top layer) Metal (Aluminium) (lower layers) Polysilicon (silicided) Diffusion (n+, p+, silicided) Polysilicon (doped) Diffusion (n+, p+) Rs ? 0. 05 0. 1 6 10 30 100 5k several k several Meg in ? ? L L 243 162 n-well Nichrome Mixed signal IC resistor material. Stable and lasertrimmable Polysilicon (undoped) 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 270 PCBs/Insulators – Dielectric Materials: †¢ Typically Fiberglass Epoxy-resin (FR4) – most common, widely available, relatively low cost – rigid structure – temperature range up to 130 °C †¢ CEM: Extremely low-cost. Punchable holes. Also available: – Polyimide: high temperature, rigid or flexible – Teflon: high temperature †¢ Thicknesses – Standard core thicknesses for ML PCBs: 5, 8, 10, 14, 20, 40 mil – Prepreg thicknesses: 4mil typical – Most PCB materials support a (relatively) controlled dielectric/impedance †¢ Suitable for transmission line s 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 271 PCBs/Vias – Vias †¢ Interconnect layers through vias (plated holes) †¢ Via dimensions: – Standard minimum finished hole sizes: ? 8mil – Aspect ratio restrictions apply Aspect ratio of a via: Ratio of board thickness to via diameter. Allows judgement of manufacturability. The larger the aspect ratio, the more difficult it is to achieve reliable plating. Premium charge for aspect ratios 8. 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 272 PCBs/Vias – Vias †¢ Vias require pads on each layer to which they connect. Because the holes are not guaranteed to be perfectly aligned with the copper traces there will need to be an annulus of copper around the plated hole. This is to ensure that the copper won’t be broken by the drilling operation †¢ Pads on inner vias are larger than outer pads to allow for greater dimensional tolerances †¢ Where a via passes through a plane (i. e. ot connect to the plane) a clearance hole is required †¢ Where a via is supposed to connect to a plane, a thermal relief structure is required (usually four small metal bridges between via and plane). Thermal relief is required to facilitate soldering operations. 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 273 PCBs/Vias – Vias †¢ Vias are much larger than signal wires †¢ Vias oc cupy all layers (with the exception of blind and buried vias) †¢ Consequence: Vias reduce wiring density and are therefore expensive! 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 274 PCBs/Special Vias – Vias †¢ Special vias available for high-volume PCBs: Blind vias (connection of outer layer to inner layer) – Buried vias (connection of inner layers preferably on same core! ) †¢ Advantages – Increased wiring density (vias don’t occupy all layers) – Product safety (creepage and clearance distances for electrical insulation) †¢ Penalties: – Restricted choice of suppliers – More complex process:  » Cost  » Reliability Blind Via Via Buried Via 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 275 PCBs/Manufacturing Process – Manufacturing process steps (for a typical rigid multilayer PCB representing about 70% of all PCBs manufactured) †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ PCB data acquisition Preparation of PCB laminate (core) Inner layer image transfer Laminate layers Drilling and cleaning holes Make holes conductive Outer layer image transfer Surface finish Final fabrication EE6471 (KR) 276 29/09/2005 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 1 – Step 1: PCB data acquisition †¢ Files transferred from PCB design house to PCB manufacturing facility: – Gerber files, drill files, fabrication drawings †¢ File review by PCB manufacturer †¢ Creation of PCB tooling – Photo-tool for image transfer Image created by PCB software is reproduced on film using laser photoplotters Drill files – Profile routing files CNC route file – All tooling is stepped and repeated for optimum utilisation of standard panels (24in x 18in) 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 277 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 2 – Step 2: Preparation of PCB laminate (core) †¢ Dielectric material: Woven glass fiber or paper Material depends on the function of the PCB. Some materials perform better in some environments than others (heat, humidity). Some materials are more suitable for particular manufacturing processes (e. g. hole punching). Others again are chosen for electric properties (permittivity). Most widely used: FR4 / CEM Coat/impregnate dielectric material with resin harden †¢ Copper foil is rolled or electrolytically deposited on the base laminate †¢ Core material is sheared to panel size †¢ Core material is cleaned mechanically and/or chemically Removal of surface contamination required to promote subsequent adhesion of photoresist (PR) 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 278 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 3 – Step 3: Inner layer image transfer (photo-lithography) Purpose: Transfer circuit image to core through â€Å"print-and-etch† process †¢ Coat copper foils with photoresist (PR) Negative PR: Light-sensitive organic PR polymerises (â€Å"hardens†) when exposed to light. Polymerised PR will resist etching. †¢ Place phototool and expose to light After expose, PR layer is developed. Polymerised areas remain, unexposed areas are washed away. †¢ Etching Selectively remove exposed copper areas. Etching is performed with conveyorised equipment (etchant flood rinse, several water rinses). Common etchants: Acidic cupric chloride and alkaline ammoniacal. 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 279 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 4 – Step 4: Lamination †¢ Cores are pinned in a stack with sheets of prepreg (b-stage) separating the copper layers. Outer layers are made with a foil of copper †¢ Horizontal alignment critical! Stack is pinned between two heavy metal plates creating a â€Å"book†. †¢ Book is put in a heated hydraulic press for about 2h. Prepreg is available in different styles with varying amounts of resin and glass fibers. This allows the manufacturer to control thickness between layers and thickness of the overall PCB. 29/09/2 005 EE6471 (KR) Outer Cu foil Prepreg Core Prepreg Core Prepreg Core Prepreg Outer Cu foil Temperature (175 °C) Pressure (3000kg) Time (2h) 280 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 5 – Step 5: Drilling and cleaning Purpose: Holes are drilled through PCB to interconnect layers (vias), and to allow the insertion of PTH components Drilling performed with CNC equipment Using drill files. Alternative methods to drilling exist (punching, laser). †¢ Multiple panels can be drilled together Drilling of complex boards can take several hours per load †¢ Desmear Desmear removes the melted resin smear †¢ Etchback Etch glassfibers. Goal: Copper on the inner layers protrude out into the barrel of the hole †¢ Panels are deburred/scrubbed after drilling 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 281 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 6 – Step 6: Make holes conductive PCB substrate is not conductive. Therefore a non-electrolytic deposition method is required. In a later process step, electroplating to the required thickness can be performed †¢ Process: Electroless copper Electroless copper is reliable but alternative methods exist. Electroless copper has some significant disadvantages (like exposure to formaldehyde, which is carcinogen). †¢ Electroless copper bath Deposits 75-125 µIn of copper †¢ Constituents of electroless copper: Sodium hydroxide, formaldehyde, EDTA and copper salt. Complex reaction catalysed by palladium, formaldehyde reduces the copper ion to metallic copper. 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 282 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 7 – Step 7: Outer layer image transfer Most common process: Print, pattern plate, and etch †¢ Coat copper foils with photoresist (PR) †¢ Place phototool and expose to light Outer layer phototools are positive images of the circuit. Circuit image is developed away exposing the copper. PR remaining on the panel will act as plating resist †¢ Pattern plating (copper electroplating) Outer layers will be plated to a thickness of 1. 5mil (to ensure a minimum thickness of 1mil in the holes). Copper electroplating takes place in a copper sulfate bath. Plating is performed at roughly 30A/ft2. Plating duration is roughly 1h. †¢ Plate metallic etch resist †¢ Etching 9/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 283 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 8 – Step 8: Surface finish Purpose: Prevent copper oxidation. Facilitate solderability. †¢ Most popular surface finish process: SMOBC/HASL: SMOBC: Solder-mask-over-bare-copper. HASL: hot-air-solder-leveling †¢ Solder mask pre-clean (mechanical scrub) †¢ Application of solder mask Purpose of solder mask: Insulate those portions where no solder is required. Most popular mask type: LPI (liquid photoimageable). †¢ Application of flux Provides oxidation protection. Affects heat transfer during solder immersion. †¢ HASL Panels are dipped into molten solder (237 °C). Panels are then rapidly carried past jets of hot air. Exposed copper is coated with solder. Masked areas remain solderfree. Panels are then cleaned in hot water. 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 284 PCBs/Manufacturing Process/Step 9 – Step 9: Final fabrication Mechanical features are added to the board (mounting holes, cutouts, etc) †¢ Routing done through CNC machines †¢ De-panelisation – Partial de-panelisation. Most of the circuit is routed out of the panel, but tabs remain to hold the circuit in place. This allows the assembly machine to populate multiple boards at once. Afterwards, the circuit can be snapped or broken out of the panel. Such panels are called â€Å"breakaways†, â€Å"snaps†, or â€Å"arrays†. – The alternative to partial de-panelisation is to have the panel V-scored. Vscoring is done through a thin rotating scoring blade that will route across the top and the bottom of the panel with about 30% of the thickness of the panel. Vscoring allows more circuits per panel (no spacing is required for routing bits). 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 285 PCBs/Panels – PCB Boards are fabricated in panels to minimise cost of PCB manufacturer and assembly manufacturer – Typical panel dimensions are 18*24in (460x610mm) – Overall board dimensions are kept much smaller than a full panel 9/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 286 PCBs/Typical Assembly Process – Panel of an electronic unit (left) – Electronic assembly after manufacturing process – Typical manufacturing process: †¢ Silk-screen solder paste onto the panel †¢ Pick-and-place (PP) components (PP machine or manually) †¢ Heavier components and components on bottom side of the board need to be glued down (epoxy-based glue) †¢ Soldering in IR reflow oven (providing the required reflow temperature profile of gradually increasing, sustaining, and removing heat) †¢ Visual inspection (manual or vision systems) †¢ Electrical testing (ATE) 9/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 287 PCBs/Layout/Do’s and Don’ts – Do’s: †¢ Use (continuous) supply layers whenever possible. Keep connections to supply layers short †¢ Use SMT components wherever possible †¢ Use filter components where required and possible †¢ Place blocking capacitors as close as possible to supply pins of transient loads. Use star-point connections at blocking caps. Signal and Vcc Layer Ground Layer C C 74HCTxxx 29/09/2005 C EE6471 (KR) 74HCTxxx 288 PCBs/Layout/Do’s and Don’ts – Do not’s: †¢ Do not create ground loops! Mutual inductances couple ground loops to other currents loops. Ground loops typically have very small impedances. Currents coupled into ground loops can be very large. They cause problems like ground bounce, signal distortion, etc. Signal and Vcc Layer Ground Layer C C 74HCTxxx 29/09/2005 C EE6471 (KR) 74HCTxxx 289 PCBs/Layout/Do’s and Don’ts – Do not’s: †¢ Avoid discontinuities in grounds layers! High frequency return currents in ground layers follow the path with the least inductance. This path is usually directly underneath the signal trace. If there are discontinuities in the ground layer high frequency currents cannot flow underneath the signal trace. Large loop areas are created, and cause a variety of problems (ground bounce, cross-talk) Signal and Vcc Layer Ground Layer C C 74HCTxxx C PTH connector causing a slot in the ground layer 29/09/2005 EE6471 (KR) 74HCTxxx 290